Metallothionein gene expression differs in earthworm populations with different exposure history.

Metals are persistent pollutants in soils that can harm soil organisms and decrease species diversity. Animals can cope with metal contamination with the help of metallothioneins, small metal-binding proteins involved in homeostasis and detoxification of metals. We studied the expression of metallothionein with qPCR in a small, epigeic earthworm, Dendrobaena octaedra. We compared expression patterns and metal body content in earthworms collected from two sites with different metal contamination histories: Harjavalta, contaminated by a Cu-Ni smelter operational for over 50 years, and Jyväskylä, an uncontaminated site. Earthworms from both sites were also experimentally exposed to different concentrations of Cu (control, 50, 100 or 200 mg/kg) or Zn (control, 75, 150 or 300 mg/kg) for 7, 14 or 28 days to determine if there is a time related dose-response in gene expression. Population comparison showed that metallothionein expression was higher in earthworms from the contaminated site. In the exposure experiment, exposure time affected expression, but only in the earthworms from the uncontaminated site, suggesting that there is a delay in the metallothionein response of earthworms in this population. In contrast, earthworms from the contaminated site showed higher and constant levels of metallothionein expression at all exposure concentrations and durations. The constant metallothionein expression in earthworms from the contaminated site suggests that inducibility of metallothionein response could be lost in earthworms with metal exposure history. Adaptation of D. octaedra to metal exposure could explain the differences between the populations and explain the persistence of this species in contaminated forest soils.

The benefits of interpopulation hybridization diminish with increasing divergence of small populations.

Interpopulation hybridization can increase the viability of small populations suffering from inbreeding and genetic drift, but it can also result in outbreeding depression. The outcome of hybridization can depend on various factors, including the level of genetic divergence between the populations, and the number of source populations. Furthermore, the effects of hybridization can change between generations following the hybridization. We studied the effects of population divergence (low vs. high level of divergence) and the number of source populations (two vs. four source populations) on the viability of hybrid populations using experimental Drosophila littoralis populations. Population viability was measured for seven generations after hybridization as proportion of populations facing extinction and as per capita offspring production. Hybrid populations established at the low level of population divergence were more viable than the inbred source populations and had higher offspring production than the large control population. The positive effects of hybridization lasted for the seven generations. In contrast, at the high level of divergence, the viability of the hybrid populations was not significantly different from the inbred source populations, and offspring production in the hybrid populations was lower than in the large control population. The number of source populations did not have a significant effect at either low or high level of population divergence. The study shows that the benefits of interpopulation hybridization may decrease with increasing divergence of the populations, even when the populations share identical environmental conditions. We discuss the possible genetic mechanisms explaining the results and address the implications for conservation of populations.

Phylogenetic analysis of cryptic speciation in the polychaete Pygospio elegans.

Development in marine invertebrate species can take place through a variety of modes and larval forms, but within a species, developmental mode is typically uniform. Poecilogony refers to the presence of more than one mode of development within a single species. True poecilogony is rare, however, and in some cases, apparent poecilogony is actually the result of variation in development mode among recently diverged cryptic species. We used a phylogenetic approach to examine whether poecilogony in the marine polychaete worm, Pygospio elegans, is the result of cryptic speciation. Populations of worms identified as P. elegansooded, and intermediate larvae; these modes are found both within and among populations. We examined sequence variation among partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences obtained for 279 individual worms sampled across broad geographic and environmental scales. Despite a large number of unique haplotypes (121 haplotypes from 279 individuals), sequence divergence among European samples was low (1.7%) with most of the sequence variation observed within populations, relative to the variation among regions. More importantly, we observed common haplotypes that were widespread among the populations we sampled, and the two most common haplotypes were shared between populations differing in developmental mode. Thus, our results support an earlier conclusion of poecilogony in P elegans. In addition, predominantly planktonic populations had a larger number of population-specific low-frequency haplotypes. This finding is largely consistent with interspecies comparisons showing high diversity for species with planktonic developmental modes in contrast to low diversity in species with brooded developmental modes.

Permanent genetic resources added to Molecular Ecology Resources Database 1 February 2011-31 March 2011.

This article documents the addition of 111 microsatellite marker loci to the Molecular Ecology Resources Database. Loci were developed for the following species: Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi, Anopheles nuneztovari sensu lato, Asellus aquaticus, Calopteryx splendens, Calopteryx virgo, Centaurea aspera, Centaurea seridis, Chilina dombeyana, Proctoeces cf. lintoni and Pyrenophora teres f. teres.

High mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in the parthenogenetic earthworm Dendrobaena octaedra.

Apomictic parthenogens are clonal organisms with limited genetic opportunity for increasing diversity beyond mutation. However, such species can be successful and have been shown to harbor more genetic diversity than might be expected. Here we surveyed diversity of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene from the mitochondrial genome of the earthworm Dendrobaena octaedra, an apomictic parthenogen. Diversity estimates made previously from allozyme markers for this species were high, but could have been affected by a detection bias, namely variable expression of alleles in the polyploid genome. We found similarly high mtDNA diversity over three localities in Finland, each represented by two sites; either with or without anthropogenic soil metal contamination. A single haplotype was most common over all sites, and over two thirds of all haplotypes sampled were similar to it in sequence (only varying by 1-3 substitutions). However, more divergent rare haplotypes were also found in one locality, Imatra, in southeast Finland close to the Karelian Isthmus. Metal contamination in the soil did not have a significant effect on genetic diversity, although metal exposure is known to be detrimental to the worms. There was no evidence for cryptic species within D. octaedra and phylogenetic analyses showed some structure of lineages that may have diverged in historical glacial refugia. Other mechanisms, such as rare genetic exchange with closely related species or high mutation and dispersal rates may explain high genetic diversity in D. octaedra.